Validity of parental recalls to estimate vaccination coverage: evidence from Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: The estimates of vaccination coverage are measured from administrative data and from population based survey. While both card-based and recall data are collected through population survey, and the recall is when the card is missing, the preferred estimates remain of the card-based due to limited validity of parental recalls. As there is a concern of missing cards in poor settings, the evidence on validity of parental recalls is limited and varied across vaccine types, and therefore timely and needed. We validated the recalls against card-based data based on population survey in Tanzania. METHODS: We used a cross-sectional survey of about 3000 households with women who delivered in the last 12 months prior to the interview in 2012 from three regions in Tanzania. Data on the vaccination status on four vaccine types were collected using two data sources, card and recall-based. We compared the level of agreement and identified the recall bias between the two data sources. We further computed the sensitivity and specificity of parental recalls, and used a multivariate logit model to identify the determinants of parental recall bias. RESULTS: Most parents (85.4%) were able to present the vaccination cards during the survey, and these were used for analysis. Although the coverage levels were generally similar across data sources, the recall-based data slightly overestimated the coverage estimates. The level of agreement between the two data sources was high above 94%, with minimal recall bias of less than 6%. The recall bias due to over-reporting were slightly higher than that due to under-reporting. The sensitivity of parental recalls was generally high for all vaccine types, while the specificity was generally low across vaccine types except for measles. The minimal recall bias for DPT and measles were associated with the mother's age, education level, health insurance status, region location and child age. CONCLUSION: Parental recalls when compared to card-based data are hugely accurate with minimal recall bias in Tanzania. Our findings support the use of parental recall collected through surveys to identify the child vaccination status in the absence of vaccination cards. The use of recall data alongside card-based estimates also ensures more representative coverage estimates

Improving quality of care through payment for performance: examining effects on the availability and stock-out of essential medical commodities in Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of payment for performance (P4P) on the availability and stock-out rate of reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) medical commodities in Tanzania and assess the distributional effects. METHODS: The availability of RMNCH commodities (medicines, supplies and equipment) on the day of the survey, and stock-outs for at least one day in the 90 days prior to the survey, was measured in 75 intervention and 75 comparison facilities in January 2012 and 13 months later. Composite scores for each subgroup of commodities were generated. A difference-in-differences linear regression was used to estimate the effect of P4P on outcomes and differential effects by facility location, level of care, ownership and socio-economic status of the catchment population. RESULTS: We estimated a significant increase in the availability of medicines by 8.4 percentage points (P = 0.002) and an 8.3 percentage point increase (P = 0.050) in the availability of medical supplies. P4P had no effect on the availability of functioning equipment. Most items with a significant increase in availability also showed a significant reduction in stock-outs. Effects were generally equally distributed across facilities, with effects on stock-outs of many medicines being pro-poor, and greater effects in facilities in rural compared to urban districts. CONCLUSION: P4P can improve the availability of medicines and medical supplies, especially in poor, rural areas, when these commodities are incentivised at both facility and district levels, making services more acceptable, effective and affordable, enhancing progress towards universal health coverage

Understanding causal pathways within health systems policy evaluation through mediation analysis:An application to payment for performance (P4P) in Tanzania

BACKGROUND: The evaluation of payment for performance (P4P) programmes has focused mainly on understanding contributions to health service coverage, without unpacking causal mechanisms. The overall aim of the paper is to test the causal pathways through which P4P schemes may (or may not) influence maternal care outcomes. METHODS: We used data from an evaluation of a P4P programme in Tanzania. Data were collected from a sample of 3000 women who delivered in the 12 months prior to interview and 200 health workers at 150 health facilities from seven intervention and four comparison districts in Tanzania in January 2012 and in February 2013. We applied causal mediation analysis using a linear structural equation model to identify direct and indirect effects of P4P on institutional delivery rates and on the uptake of two doses of an antimalarial drug during pregnancy. We first ran a series of linear difference-in-difference regression models to test the effect of P4P on potential mediators, which we then included in a linear difference-in-difference model evaluating the impact of P4P on the outcome. We tested the robustness of our results to unmeasured confounding using semi-parametric methods. RESULTS: P4P reduced the probability of women paying for delivery care (-4.5 percentage points) which mediates the total effect of P4P on institutional deliveries (by 48%) and on deliveries in a public health facility (by 78%). P4P reduced the stock-out rate for some essential drugs, specifically oxytocin (-36 percentage points), which mediated the total effect of P4P on institutional deliveries (by 22%) and deliveries in a public health facility (by 30%). P4P increased kindness at delivery (5 percentage points), which mediated the effect of P4P on institutional deliveries (by 48%) and on deliveries in a public health facility (by 49%). P4P increased the likelihood of supervision visits taking place within the last 90 days (18 percentage points), which mediated 15% of the total P4P effect on the uptake of two antimalarial doses during antenatal care (IPT2). Kindness during deliveries and the probability of paying out of pocket for delivery care were the mediators most robust to unmeasured confounding. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of P4P on institutional deliveries is mediated by financing and human resources factors, while uptake of antimalarials in pregnancy is mediated by governance factors. Further research is required to explore additional and more complex causal pathways

Evaluating performance-based financing in low-income and middle-income countries: the need to look beyond average effect.

Over the last decade, performance-based financing (PBF) has gained momentum as a health financing innovation, which combines linking healthcare payments to performance with increased provider autonomy and supervision. 1 2 The combination of these elements is expected to boost supply-side efforts towards increasing quantity and quality of service provision, triggering a demand-side response towards improved service utilisation.1 3 4 A recent paper by Paul et al has critically questioned the widespread introduction of PBF in light of the limited available evidence on its effectiveness.5 The response to this paper has been varied, with authors advancing arguments for and against PBF. Some African PBF implementers have claimed that PBF is an evolving strategy with potential benefits on health systems despite its existing challenges. 6 Others have drawn attention to the unintended consequences of PBF7 or to the need to assess the economic value of such an approach.8 Beyond their diverse arguments, however, most authors have concurred with Paul et al5 on the limited scope of currently available evidence and have postulated the need to better assess how PBF works under different contextual constraints within and across settings.9 10 Our commentary positions itself against this background, acknowledges the limited scope of current evidence on PBF, and explicitly argues in favour of devoting more effort to unravel heterogeneity across and within settings. Our argument is based on the recognition that by virtue of how impact evaluations are designed, the focus has been on the average effect, which masks important heterogeneity across settings, providers and users.11-13 To date, only a handful of studies have assessed heterogeneity of PBF effects across population subgroups4 14 15 or across health providers.16-18 Similarly, little attention has been devoted to understanding which factors can explain heterogeneity in the response to PBF or why PBF stimulates changes in some instances, but not in others.3 4 10 In light of the above, we call for more systematic analyses of heterogeneity, defined in relation to both the need to report differential effects and the need to understand what drives or explains such differential effects within and across settings. We first define and outline potential sources of heterogeneity and then offer initial guidance on how to measure and understand heterogeneity

Does payment for performance increase performance inequalities across health providers? A case study of Tanzania.

The impact of payment-for-performance (P4P) schemes in the health sector has been documented, but there has been little attention to the distributional effects of P4P across health facilities. We examined the distribution of P4P payouts over time and assessed whether increased service coverage due to P4P differed across facilities in Tanzania. We used two service outcomes that improved due to P4P [facility-based deliveries and provision of antimalarials during antenatal care (ANC)], to also assess whether incentive design matters for performance inequalities. We used data from 150 facilities from intervention and comparison areas in January 2012 and 13 months later. Our primary data were gathered through facility survey and household survey, while data on performance payouts were obtained from the programme administrator. Descriptive inequality measures were used to examine the distribution of payouts across facility subgroups. Difference-in-differences regression analyses were used to identify P4P differential effects on the two service coverage outcomes across facility subgroups. We found that performance payouts were initially higher among higher-level facilities (hospitals and health centres) compared with dispensaries, among facilities with more medical commodities and among facilities serving wealthier populations, but these inequalities declined over time. P4P had greater effects on coverage of institutional deliveries among facilities with low baseline performance, serving middle wealth populations and located in rural areas. P4P effects on antimalarials provision during ANC was similar across facilities. Performance inequalities were influenced by the design of incentives and a range of facility characteristics; however, the nature of the service being targeted is also likely to have affected provider response. Further research is needed to examine in more detail the effects of incentive design on outcomes and researchers should be encouraged to report on design aspects in their evaluations of P4P and systematically monitor and report subgroup effects across providers

Patient and health system costs of managing pregnancy and birth-related complications in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review

Background Morbidity and mortality due to pregnancy and childbearing are high in developing countries. This study aims to estimate patient and health system costs of managing pregnancy and birth-related complications in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods A systematic review of the literature was conducted to identify costing studies published and unpublished, from January 2000 to May 2019. The search was done in Pubmed, EMBASE, Cinahl, and Web of Science databases and grey literature. The study was registered in PROSPERO with registration No. CRD42019119316. All costs were converted to 2018 US dollars using relevant Consumer Price Indices. Results Out of 1652 studies identified, 48 fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The included studies were of moderate to high quality. Spontaneous vaginal delivery cost patients and health systems between USD 6–52 and USD 8–73, but cesarean section costs between USD 56–377 and USD 80–562, respectively. Patient and health system costs of abortion range between USD 11–66 and USD 40–298, while post-abortion care costs between USD 21–158 and USD 46–151, respectively. The patient and health system costs for managing a case of eclampsia range between USD 52–231 and USD 123–186, while for maternal hemorrhage they range between USD 65–196 and USD 30–127, respectively. Patient cost for caring low-birth weight babies ranges between USD 38–489 while the health system cost was estimated to be USD 514. Conclusion This is the first systematic review to compile comprehensive up-to-date patient and health system costs of managing pregnancy and birth-related complications in sub-Saharan Africa. It indicates that these costs are relatively high in this region and that patient costs were largely catastrophic relative to a 10 % of average national per capita income.publishedVersio

Pay-for-performance reduces bypassing of health facilities: evidence from Tanzania

Many patients and expectant mothers in low-income countries bypass local health facilities in search of betterquality services. This study examines the impact of a payment-for-performance (P4P) scheme on bypassing practices among expectant women in Tanzania. We expect the P4P intervention to reduce incidences of bypassing by improving the quality of services in local health facilities, thereby reducing the incentive to migrate. We used a difference-in-difference regression model to assess the impact of P4P on bypassing after one year and after three years. In addition, we implemented a machine learning approach to identify factors that predict bypassing. Overall, 38% of women bypassed their local health service provider to deliver in another facility. Our analysis shows that the P4P scheme significantly reduced bypassing. On average, P4P reduced bypassing in the study area by 17% (8 percentage points) over three years. We also identified two main predictors of bypassing - facility type and the distance to the closest hospital. Women are more likely to bypass if their local facility is a dispensary instead of a hospital or a health center. Women are less likely to bypass if they live close to a hospital.publishedVersio

Implementation and effectiveness of free health insurance for the poor pregnant women in Tanzania: A mixed methods evaluation.

Demand side financing strategies have been a popular means of increasing coverage and availability of effective maternal and child health services in low and middle income countries (LMIC). However, most research to date has focused on the effects of demand side financing on the use and costs of care with less attention being paid to how they work to achieve outcomes. This study used a mixed methods evaluation to determine the effect of a targeted health insurance scheme on access to affordable quality maternal and child care, and assess implementation fidelity and how this affected programme outcomes. Programme effects on service access, affordability and quality were evaluated using difference in difference regression analysis, with outcomes being measured through facility, patient and household surveys and observations of care before the intervention started and eighteen months later. A simultaneous process evaluation was designed as a case study of the implementation experience. A total of 90 in-depth interviews (IDIs) and five focus group discussions were conducted during three rounds of data collection among respondents from management, facility and community. The scheme achieved high coverage among the target population and reduced the amount paid for antenatal and delivery care; however, there was no effect on service coverage and limited effects on quality of care. The lack of programme effects was partly due to the late timing of first antenatal care visits and registration for the scheme together with limited understanding of entitlements among beneficiaries and providers. Better communication of programme benefits is needed to enhance effects together with integration of such schemes within existing purchasing mechanisms and in financially decentralised health systems

Who benefits from increased service utilisation? Examining the distributional effects of payment for performance in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Payment for performance (P4P) strategies, which provide financial incentives to health workers and/or facilities for reaching pre-defined performance targets, can improve healthcare utilisation and quality. P4P may also reduce inequalities in healthcare use and access by enhancing universal access to care, for example, through reducing the financial barriers to accessing care. However, P4P may also enhance inequalities in healthcare if providers cherry-pick the easier-to-reach patients to meet their performance targets. In this study, we examine the heterogeneity of P4P effects on service utilisation across population subgroups and its implications for inequalities in Tanzania. METHODS: We used household data from an evaluation of a P4P programme in Tanzania. We surveyed about 3000 households with women who delivered in the last 12 months prior to the interview from seven intervention and four comparison districts in January 2012 and a similar number of households in 13 months later. The household data were used to generate the population subgroups and to measure the incentivised service utilisation outcomes. We focused on two outcomes that improved significantly under the P4P, i.e. institutional delivery rate and the uptake of antimalarials for pregnant women. We used a difference-in-differences linear regression model to estimate the effect of P4P on utilisation outcomes across the different population subgroups. RESULTS: P4P led to a significant increase in the rate of institutional deliveries among women in poorest and in middle wealth status households, but not among women in least poor households. However, the differential effect was marginally greater among women in the middle wealth households compared to women in the least poor households (p = 0.094). The effect of P4P on institutional deliveries was also significantly higher among women in rural districts compared to women in urban districts (p = 0.028 for differential effect), and among uninsured women than insured women (p = 0.001 for differential effect). The effect of P4P on the uptake of antimalarials was equally distributed across population subgroups. CONCLUSION: P4P can enhance equitable healthcare access and use especially when the demand-side barriers to access care such as user fees associated with drug purchase due to stock-outs have been reduced

Assessing equity and efficiency of health financing towards universal health coverage between regions in Tanzania.

Equity and efficiency in health financing are intermediate universal health coverage (UHC) objectives. While there is growing attention to monitoring these goals at the national level, subnational assessment is also needed to uncover potential divergences across subnational units. We assessed whether health funds were allocated or contributed equitably and spent efficiently across 26 regions in Tanzania in 2017/18 for four sources of funding. Government and donor health basket fund (HBF) expenditure data were obtained from government authorities. Household contributions to health insurance and out-of-pocket payments were obtained from the national household budget survey. We used the Kakwani index (KI) to measure regional funding equity, whereby regional GDP per capita measured regional economic status. Efficiency analysis included four financing inputs and two UHC outputs (maternal health service coverage and financial protection indices). Data envelopment analysis estimated efficiency scores. There was substantial variation in per capita regional funding, especially in insurance contributions (TZS 473-13,520), and service coverage performance (49-86.3%). There was less variation in per capita HBF spending (TZS 1294-2394) and financial protection (93.5-99.4%). Government spending (KI: -0.047, p = 0.348) was proportional to regional economic status; but HBF spending (KI: -0.195, p < 0.001) was significantly progressive (equitably distributed), being targeted to regions with high economic need (poor). The burden of contributing to social health insurance (NHIF) was proportional (KI: 0.058, p = 0.613), while the burden of paying for community-based insurance (CHF, KI: -0.152, p=0.012) and out-of-pocket payments (KI: -0.187, p=0.005) was higher among the poor (regressive). The average efficiency score across regions was 90%, indicating that 90% of financial resources were used optimally, while 10% were wasted or underutilised. Tanzania should continue mobilising domestic resources for health towards UHC, and reduce reliance on inequitable out-of-pocket payments and community-based health insurance. Policymakers must enhance resource allocation formulas, public financial management, and sub-national resource tracking to improve equity and efficiency in resource use